The Great Depression in Latin America

In order to maintain a stable economy, it is critical for governments to adopt relevant policies that cushion crucial sectors from economic shocks. The failure in this regard is likely to result in a vulnerable economy that cannot guarantee the survival of vital industries in the aftermath of a global phenomenon such as the Great Depression.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Great Depression in Latin America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although some economic policies may vary from one region to another, others play a crucial role in the transition of any developing country into industrialization. The political environment in a region is essential concerning the adoption and proper implementation of various economic policies. Policymakers play a central role in reforms and thus possess significant effects on a country’s economic transformation. The Great Depression mostly marked the onset of changes in the economic policies adopted by Latin-American countries. This period adversely affected a significant portion of the Latin America, which largely depended on the role of supplying raw materials to different parts of the world as a means of generating income. Because of the weakening of the global economy, industries in the affect countries minimized the importation of raw materials. This severed the chief source of foreign currency for various Latin-American countries and led to a rising trend of poverty and social chaos. Thus, there was the need for collaborative efforts by various stakeholders within Latin America to draft economic policies that would safeguard different aspects of the Latin-American economy. Leaders in Latin America acknowledged the need to change economic policies and promoted the discarding of the free-market model in favor of import substitution (CaÃŒ rdenas et al., 2000). The applicability of this model remained satisfactory for various Latin-American c ountries until the 1980s. The import-substitution model focused on the reduction of the dependence of the economy of a nation on foreign parties. To achieve this objective, countries in Latin America embarked on various aspects of local production. The policies on import substitution ensured the state’s participation in aspects such as nationalization and subsidization of industrial and agricultural raw materials. Other measures included increased tax rates and the imposition of protectionist trade policies. The adoption of these measures focused on the protection of local industries and stabilization of economies in various Latin-American countries.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The import-substitution model attracted support among Latin-American countries due to the consideration that most of the industrialized countries employed various aspects of import substitution to atta in states that are more self-sufficient. Another factor that led to the adoption of import substitution in Latin America was the need to address the rising trend of unemployment and poverty, primarily attributed to the global economic crisis at the time. The Great Depression caused significant economic shocks throughout the world and declining domestic employment in Latin America. However, from around the 1980s, import substitution policies began to lose favor among developing countries, including those in Latin America. Policies relating to import-substituting industrialization (ISI) led to losses and debts within Latin America due to the introduction of various programs by the World Bank and other bodies that brought about market liberalization. Following the 1980s’ debts that caused crises in various Latin-American countries, concerned parties identified the need to privatize the management of previously nationalized entities and thus began adopting market-oriented economi c policies (Solimano Soto, 2005). In the 1990s, Latin America witnesses a significant change in the manner of management of capital-intensive sectors such as telecommunication. Financial shortages and the lack of adequate investment in various aspects of technology are some of the crucial factors that instigated the shift towards privatization. The previous model of import substitution forced most Latin-American countries to participate in various aspects of importation. This promoted the adoption and integration of concepts relating to a market-oriented economy. The effects of the debt crisis of the 1980s created numerous barriers that introduced challenges concerning access to financial markets. This resulted in a trend of declining availability of capital in most of the Latin-American countries. Market-oriented policies provided a framework upon which the government could attract sources of capital. These policies facilitated the privatization of electricity and telecommunicatio n sectors, which were mostly capital intensive. The importance attached to these sectors resulted from the realization of their prospects for expansion due to high demand. Thus, they provided a platform through which the government could achieve its various objectives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Great Depression in Latin America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Political reforms in Latin America also influenced the adoption of market-oriented policies. This resulted due to influence by policymakers who promoted new democracies. By the end of the 20th century, most of the countries in Latin America had adopted a framework based on the three principal concepts used to attract private capital (Bethell, 2008). The first approach was the privatization of key sectors through the public sale of shares or concession contracts that transferred the ownership and administration of various capital-intensive entitie s. The other method was the elimination of restrictions that hindered the influence of private capital on public monopolies. This strategy facilitated the generation of investments that availed capital and promoted the operation of various sectors. The third approach was the drafting of regulations, and the establishment of bodies to ensure that private investors adhere to the set standards and rules. Another factor that led to the adoption of market-oriented reforms in Latin America was the influence of international financial institutions. These institutions gained significant control in the region due to their role as the primary source of credit for the capital-deficient Latin America. The lack of funds for various government projects presented an opportunity for the involvement of financial institutions in technological modernization as an aspect for generating fiscal assets. However, the adoption of market-oriented policies varied among different countries in Latin America. Fo r example, while Chile adopted the reforms on electricity at around 1982, Mexico adopted such reforms in 1999 (Frieden et al., 2000). In addition, although Costa Rica was successful in its attempts to privatize telecommunication, Argentina failed to achieve similar goals that year. These discrepancies also arose concerning the outcomes of market control. Some countries adopted the monopolistic aspect of market regulation. However, countries such as Mexico adopted the fixed-term monopoly concepts and other aspects that promoted market-controlling reforms. Although the adoption of various economic reforms in Latin America face challenges, the outcome of the implementation of those reforms positively transformed the region and introduced significant levels of self-sufficiency. While the economic recession-induced the onset of the industrial imposition, adverse effects associated with import-substituting industrialization promoted the need for other economic reforms that would guarantee the survival of Latin-American countries in both the local and global economies. Although economic reforms were crucial in Latin America, a narrow scope that focused mainly on the local economy introduced hindrances that necessitated the re-evaluation of Latin America’s economic policies in the global perspective.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Bethell, L. (2008). The Cambridge history of Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CaÃŒ rdenas, E., Ocampo, J. A., Thorp, R. (2000). An economic history of twentieth-century Latin America. Houdsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave ;. Frieden, J. A., Pastor, M., Tomz, M. (2000). Modern political economy and Latin America: theory and policy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. Solimano, A., Soto, R. (2005). Economic growth in Latin America in the late 20th century: evidence and interpretation. Santiago, Chile: CEPAL, Economic Development Division. This essay on The Great Depression in Latin America was written and submitted by user Ex1les to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Cubism1 essays

Cubism1 essays Cubism is one of the first forms of abstract art. "Cubism was a movement in painting that sought to break down objects into basic shapes of cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones." Cubism originated in France and was influenced by African sculptures and by Paul Cezanne. The first cubist works were those in which objects, landscapes, and people are represented as many-sided solids. This enables you to see various views of the object at the same time. Later, cubism changed using a flatter type of abstraction, in which the complete pattern, becomes more important, and the objects represented are largely indecipherable. At first, most artists painted with little color. "Most paintings were either monochromatic or gray, blue, brown, and white. The final phase of cubism is called synthetic. In this phase color reappears as a primary element in the artwork. Cezanne was an artist who led the way to cubism or abstract art. Before Cezanne, artists would portray the world realistically. "It is above all Czannes obsession with formal elements of composition and his use of color as tone rather than the Impressionist pursuit of light on surface that makes his art so important to those who followed. Czannes works made it possible for artists to start to question what they saw, the way in which they saw it, and how they interpreted and represented what was in front of them". Cezanne felt that paintings should reflect artists sensations made into a pictorial form by brush strokes, color, and lines. He was known to work slowly and use colors to build shapes. In the still-life pictures that he made of fruits and bowls one can tell that he worked slowly as there are different and contradicting shadows in his pictures. Early in his career Cezanne loved to paint Sainte-Victoire (landscapes). Later he painted portraits such as "Woman with a Coffee Pot " and "The Card Players". When he began to paint landscape again h...

Accounting in Russia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Health Administarion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

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Biology - Down's Syndrome Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Theories of Genes and Cancer

Theories of Genes and Cancer The Wind in the Trees In the late 1950s, Peter Nowell and David Hungerford, two pathologists from Philadelphia had found an unusual chromosomal pattern in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cells. In CML cells, Novell found that one copy of chromosome 22 had its head lopped off. Novell called this abnormality the Philadelphia chromosome after the place of discovery. In 1973, a hematologist in Chicago named Janet Bowley followed this study, looking for the missing pieces of the Philadelphia chromosome. She found a pattern. The missing head of chromosome 22 had attached itself to the tip of chromosome 9. And a piece of chromosome 9 had attached itself to chromosome 22. This genetic event was called a translocation the transposition of two pieces of chromosomes. Bowley found this same translocation in the cells of every CML patient. Cancer was not disorganized chaos, but an organized chromosomal chaos resulting from specific, identical mutations. Chromosome translocation can create new genes called chimeras by fusing two genes formerly located on two different chromosomes. The CML translocation, Rowley postulated, had created such a chimera. *** In 1969, Alfred Knudson, a geneticist at MD Anderson Cancer Center in Texas, wanted to capture a pattern of inheritance of cancer by studying retinoblastoma, an hereditary eye cancer. Retinoblstoma has two distinct variants, an inherited familial form and a sporadic form. Children who suffer from the familial form may have strong family histories of the disease, and they typically develop tumors in both eyes. Children with the sporadic form never have a history in the family and always have a tumor in only one eye. By studying cohorts of children with the two types of cancers, Knudson discovered the cohorts developed cancers at different speeds. Inherited retinoblastoma cancer develops at early ages, typically between 2 to 6 months old. Sporadic retinoblastoma cancer develops at older ages, typically between ages 2 to 4 years old. Humans inherit two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Knudson postulated that both copies of the Retinoblastoma (Rb) gene needed to be inactivated through mutation to develop retinoblastoma. Some children inherit one mutated version and one normal version of the Rb gene. The inherited mutation is the first hit. These children are thus predisposed to the cancer, and only a single additional genetic mutation is needed for them to develop the cancer. So they develop cancer at earlier ages. Sporadic retinoblastoma develops at later ages because two independent mutations have to accumulate in the cell. Knudson called this the two-hit hypothesis of cancer. For certain cancer-causing genes, two mutational hits are needed to produce cancer. At first glance, Knudsons two-hit theory seemed at odds with the src gene, which only required one activated copy to cause cancer. The answer is because the two genes perform two different functions. The src gene creates a hyperactive kinase that provokes perpetual cell division to cause cancer, while the Rb gene performs the opposite function. It is a cancer suppressor gene, or an anti-oncogene. It requires two mutation hits to inactivate such a gene. A Risky Prediction Risky prediction is a process scientists used to validate untested theories. For instance, the return of Halleys comet in 1758 validated Newtons law of gravity. The first risky prediction involved Varmus and Bishops hypothesis on oncogenes. In the late 1970s, Varmus and Bishop had shown that the precursors of oncogenes, also called proto-oncogenes, already existed in all normal cells. They hypothesized that mutations in such proto-oncogenes caused cancer. To prove that they were right, we needed to the mutated versions of such proto-oncogenes inside the cancer cells. How does one find such a gene? The MIT cancer biologist Robert Weinberg had an idea. If he transfers a fragment of the DNA containing the activated oncogene from the cancer cell into normal cells, then the activated oncogene should induce the normal cells to divide and proliferate, producing a foci out of the normal cells in the petri dish. By repeating this process and dividing the DNA fragments into smaller and smaller fragments, he should be able to isolate the culprit. In the summer of 1979, a graduate student in Weinbergs lab named Chiaho Shih went through the experiment using mouse cancer cells. He verified that the method worked for mouse cancer cells. They then moved on to human cancer cells. Three years later in 1982, Weinberg isolated a gene called ras from human cancer cells. The mutated ras gene encoded a hyperactive protein permanently locked on. It was the long-sought native human oncogene, captured out of a cancer cell. Meanwhile, two other scientists, Mariano Barbacid, and Michael Wigler had also independently discovered the ras gene in 1982. The second risky prediction the hypothesis that retinoblastoma was caused by the mutation of two copies of Rb genes. Thad Dryja, an ophthalmologist and geneticist, suspected that the mutation responsible was likely a deletion of the gene. To prove the hypothesis, Dryja wanted to prove that the two copies of the Rb gene were deleted from the cancer cells. Week after week, Dryja extracted the chromosomes from his big collections of tumors and ran his probe set against the chromosomes. Eventually, he saw a blank space in his probes. A piece of DNA was missing in probe H3-8 of the tumor cells. Dryja took his probe to Steve Friend who had a collection of normal cells in Weinbergs lab. Friend applied the H3-8 probe to normal cells and isolated the gene on that location. Both copies of the Rb genes were indeed deleted from the cancer cells. The third risky prediction involved the hypothesis that activated oncogenes cause cancer. We already knew that (1) activated oncogenes were present in cancer cells, and (2) they could be isolated from the cancer cells. To prove causation, we have to prove that activated oncogenes can create cancer in an animal. In 1984, using transgenic mouse technology, Philip Leders team at Harvard created transgenic mice with an activated c-myc gene expressed in the breast cells. The mice developed small tumors in their breast late in life after pregnancy. To test the roles of environmental stimuli and other oncogenes, Leder created a second OncoMouse with ras and myc expressed in breast cells. The mice developed tiny distinct tumors in their breasts in months, pregnancy not required. Scientists had created real, living tumors in an animal. The Hallmarks of Cancer Philip Leders experiment showed that scientists had created real tumors by manipulating two genes, ras and myc, in an animal. But activating two potent proto-oncogenes did not create the full syndrome of cancer in every cell of the mouse. It raised further questions about the genesis of cancer. In 1988, using human specimens, a physician named Bert Vogelstein set out to describe the number of genetic changes required to start cancer. Vogelstein studied how normal cells progress to cancer cells in colon cancer. He found a consistent pattern in his colon cancer samples. The genetic progression of cancer was a multi-step process. The transitions in the stages of cancer mirrored the transitions in genetic changes. Cancer cells did not activate or inactivate at random. Instead, the shift from a pre-malignant state to an invasive cancer correlated with the activation and inactivation of genes in a strict and stereotypical sequence. Cancer cells are caused by mutations of genes in their DNA. Besides uncontrolled growth, cancer cells also can resist death signals, grow their own blood vessels, and metastasize throughout the body. In January 2000, Robert Weinberg and Douglas Hanahan wrote the seminal paper, The Hallmarks of Cancer that gave the six essential changes in cell physiology that collectively cause cancer: Self-sufficiency in growth signals gas pedal stuck on Insensitivity to growth-inhibitory signals- brakes dont work Evading of programmed cell death (apoptosis) wont die Limitless replicative potential uncontrolled growth Sustained angiogenesis having its own blood supply Tissue invasion and metastasis

The Color Purple :: essays research papers

In the book The Color Purple, by Alice Walker, Tashi is convinced that she doesn't want to go to America because no one will like her. Tashi has her doubts but Adam convinces her to come. I am not here to analyze the motives of the character's decision to go/not go to America, rather I will evaluate the historical factuality of her fears of going to the US Her fears are very realistic for any African woman coming to the states. She would have the same experience looking at modern magazines knowing how the public portrayal of woman is.In the 1930's most white people were very racist against Black people. People feared those that were different. They feared the tribal customs of Africans such as scarification marks, and saw them as savages. Tashi's fear is that "...because of the scarification marks on her cheeks Americans would look down on her as a savage and shun her." Tashi's fear is perfectly valid for any African coming to America in the 1930's because some people woul d shun her. In the '30's Black women made themselves look whiter because black skinned black people were not popular. Dark people tried to look naked, therefore Tashi feared that "Adam will be distracted by one of these naked looking women and desert [her]." With a bunch of naked women running around, any man would be distracted. She fears that he will leave her for a "more attractive" woman, but that is dependent on whether Adam really loves her. Any woman would have fears like that before marriage.Because of the Glitzy Glamour in today's magazines that solicit anorexic, pale women, she would have the same doubts and fears about coming the US. Her fears would be even more enhanced because most women in the '30's are unattractive compared to today's women. Modern magazines and old magazines are similar because both show women that are prettier that the standard women.